The Deaconesses of the Armenian Church

· March 10, 2025

BY ABEL H. MANOUKIAN

The relationship between men and women in Christianity is founded on love, which finds its origin in Christ. Jesus regarded women as equal to men, yet social and cultural influences throughout church history have led to a gender hierarchy.

While modern society enables women to attain the highest political and scientific positions, their role remains restricted in many churches. Up to the present day, Catholic, Orthodox, and Oriental Orthodox churches deny women access to the priesthood, despite the presence of female disciples, deaconesses, and prophetesses in the early Church. In contrast, Anglican, Old Catholic, and Protestant churches have, in recent times, adopted a more open stance toward the ordination of women.

The Armenian Church maintains a distinctive tradition: while women cannot become priests, they are permitted to serve as deaconesses. This reflects the Armenian Church’s deep roots in the early Christian Church and demonstrates a certain openness to gender-related matters. Yet, despite ongoing developments, the question of gender equality in the Church remains an unresolved issue to this day.

The existence of deaconesses in the Armenian Church is well documented through various historical sources dating back to the 12th century. Armenian historians have uncovered records indicating that women served in specific ecclesiastical roles. However, theological opinions of the time were divided regarding the legitimacy and scope of their ministry.

Catholicos Nerses Shnorhali (1102–1173) makes no mention of nuns or deaconesses in his “General Epistle^[1],” which may suggest that they did not hold a prominent position during his time. His contemporary, Bishop Nerses Lambronatsi (1153–1198), clearly distinguished between monastic life and the diaconate in his writings. But though he acknowledged monastic life for women, he rejected the notion that they could serve as deaconesses^[2].

Despite these theological reservations, there is substantial evidence that the office of deaconess existed within the Armenian Church, particularly in the Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia. This is confirmed, among other sources, by the “Mashtots” Ritual Book of 1314, which includes an ordination prayer for deaconesses^[3]. This prayer emphasizes that God bestows spiritual grace equally upon men and women, and calls women to serve in the Church.^[4]

“Ordination of women deacons, who are deaconesses,” MS Matenadaran 962, f. 62r, Mashtots‘, scribe – Hovhannes, illustrator – Catholicos Grigoris Aghtamartsi, Archesh, 1530

Mkhitar Gosh (1120–1213), a prominent Armenian theologian of the 12th century, explicitly defended the ordination of deaconesses. He argued that women should read the Gospel in monasteries to avoid contact with men and should play a supportive role in the baptism of adult women. To support his line of reasoning, he referred to apostolic traditions, particularly the biblical figure of Phoebe (Romans 16:1), who is described as a servant of the Church.^[5]

In the 13th century, Smbat Sparapet (the Constable) (1208 – 1276) confirmed the existence of deaconesses and described their liturgical duties. According to him, they were permitted to read the Gospel, deliver sermons, and burn incense. Their service was not confined to women’s monasteries; they also assumed pastoral responsibilities, such as baptizing children and women.^[6]

Stepanos Orbelian (1250–1303), Archbishop of Syunik, also mentioned deaconesses around the year 1299, detailing their attire and functions. Within his diocese, he allowed them to preach and read the Gospel in women’s monasteries but forbade them from actively participating in the Holy Liturgy.^[7] This restriction highlights the limitations placed on their role compared to male deacons.

Between the 12th and 15th centuries, there was no uniform stance on female ecclesiastical officeholders within the Armenian Church. While some Armenian theologians at the time recognized an official role for them, others did not refer to them directly or rejected their status altogether. This reflects the religious and social challenges of the time. Nevertheless, numerous manuscripts from the 13th and 14th centuries, including the Mashtots Ritual Book mentioned above, attest to a longstanding tradition of deaconess ordination.

An Armenian deaconess, according to the miniature by Catholicos Grigoris Aghtamartsi. MS Matenadaran 962, f. 62r, Mashtots, scribe – Yovhannes, illustrator – Catholicos Grigoris Aghtamartsi, Archesh, 1530

A remarkable testimony to this tradition comes slightly later, in the 16th century: Catholicos Grigoris Aghtamartsi (1480–1544) depicted a deaconess in a manuscript with an unveiled face and a cross on her headscarf.^[8] This suggests that deaconesses continued to be present in the Armenian Church at this time.

While the sources referenced here themselves date back to the 12th century, the oldest surviving manuscripts from the 13th and 14th centuries confirm that the canon for the ordination of deaconesses had likely been incorporated into the MashtotsRitual Book by the 9th century—presumably by Catholicos Mashtots I. Eghivardetsi (897–898), to whom the compilation of this liturgical book is attributed. The natural assumption can then be that the Armenian Church demonstrated openness toward the ordination of women as early as the 9th century.

The first evidence concerning the vestments of Armenian deaconesses dates back to the 12^th century. All authors who reference them invariably mention a small metallic cross hanging from their forehead and a stole worn over the right shoulder. We can read the following from Mkhitar Gosh regarding this:

“Their habit is that common to all believers^[9], save a cross is worn on the forehead, and they have a stole hanging down on the right side.”^[10]

Smbat Sparapet and Stepanos Orbelian provide virtually identical information in their writings from the 13th century.^[11] In photographs from a later period, specifically the 19^th and 20^th centuries, there are images of a deaconess attired in a robe with a white veil that extends to the ground.

It is noteworthy that during liturgical services, deacons wear their stole over the left shoulder, while deaconesses place theirs over the right. Whether this practice originates from the tradition of the early Church, or was intentionally introduced by the Armenians to distinguish between a deacon and a deaconess, remains uncertain.

Marianna Ksawera Nersesowiczówna, the first abbess of the Armenian Benedictine convent from 1701. 18th / 1st half of the 19th century, painter unknown, oil, canvas. Photo: Konrad K. Pollesch, Foundation for the Culture and Heritage of Polish Armenians

Several monastic centers existed within the Polish-Lithuanian state territory, where deaconesses may also have lived. Three well-known Armenian nunneries were located in Lwów (Lviv), Kamieniec, and Jazłowiec. Armenian nuns were referred to as “virgins” or by the Kipchak term ghězlar, which was commonly used among the Armenians of Poland. In Old Polish, they were called “dewotki,” meaning “devoted” or “consecrated women.”^[12] These nuns followed the ancient tradition of Armenian female monasticism.

The Armenian nunnery in Lwów can be traced back to the 16th century. And, in the 17th century, a monastic community known as the “Congregation of Virtuous Armenian Women” existed in the Church of the Dormition of the Holy Mother of God in Kamieniec Podolski.^[13]

During the Ottoman conquests (1672–1699), the nunnery in Kamieniec Podolski was destroyed, and the nuns fled across the Black Sea to Filibe (Plovdiv). Years later, they returned via the Danubian Principalities and resettled in Lviv, where they reestablished themselves around 1675/1676 as the “Congregation of St Hripsimian Virgins.”^[14]

A well-documented case is that of Mariana Poghosowna (1630–1690), an Armenian deaconess from Kamieniec Podolski. It is believed that in 1652, she undertook a pilgrimage to Jerusalem, passing through Constantinople on her return. At the same time, a group of Polish Armenians were in the city consulting with Catholicos Pilippos I Aghbaketsi^[15] (1593 – 1655) in order to seek a resolution to internal disputes within the Armenian community of Poland. These disputes regarded the Church’s union with Rome. While it remains unclear whether Poghosowna’s visit was related to these negotiations, she was present in the city at that time.

In 1653, Mariana Poghosowna was personally ordained as a deaconess by Catholicos Pilippos I. Aghbaketsi.^[16] This is particularly significant, as Pilippos I. Aghbaketsi, a staunch guardian of Armenian ecclesiastical traditions, would only have performed such an ordination if the existence of deaconesses was recognized as part of the church’s established order. At the same time, her ordination attests to the enduring presence of the deaconess tradition in the Armenian Church and its influence on distant Armenian diaspora communities.

Blessing of Grapes in New Julfa with the participation of deaconesses and nuns from St Katarine’s Convent. Photo by: Ernst Hoeltzer, 1881

The nunnery of St. Katherine in New Julfa was founded in 1623 by Xoja Eghiazar in present-day Iran.^[17] The first nuns of the nunnery, including Uruksana, Taguhi, and Hripsime, sought refuge there after being forcibly relocated by Shah Abbas I (1571–1629), and brought with them relics of St. Katherine, St. Hripsime, and St. John the Baptist from Armenia. Within 50 years, the number of nuns grew to 33, though this number gradually decreased over time. An attempt to increase the number of nuns in 1937 was unsuccessful, and the nunnery was eventually closed in 1954.^[18]

It is reported that deaconesses had been active in this nunnery even before 1660, as evidenced by a colophon in a “Missale” (1641–1660), which mentions more than a dozen deaconesses from the nunnery.^[19]

Of particular note is the fact that the abbess of the nunnery, carried a pastoral staff and wore a pectoral cross among her attire for this position, similar to the monk-priests of the Armenian Church. Other deaconesses also wore the stole during the liturgy and undertook duties typically reserved for deacons.^[20]

Stole embroidered with silver and golden thread. Inscription at the top: “Jesus Christ, St Stephen, St Peter.” At the bottom: “This stole is a memorial for the soul of Hṛipsime Mnatsakanean / A female deacon in the Cathedral of the Holy Mother of God in the Cathedral of the Holy Mother of God in Astrakhan, 1837,” Etchmiadzsin, Treasury

Another such nunnery is the St. Stepanos Convent in Tbilisi, founded approximately one hundred years after the nunnery in New Julfa. The idea of establishing this nunnery originated with Prince Ashkharbeg Behbutiants, but his vision was realized only by his son, Melik-Aghabek Behbutiants, around 1724–1727, when the nunnery was founded on the family estate.^[21]

At the St. Stepanos nunnery, the abbesses always bore the title “Archdeaconess,” and within the community of nuns, there were deaconesses, subdeaconesses, and nuns who held lower ecclesiastical offices.

The nunnery and its nuns gained international renown, in particular through the travel accounts of British traveler Henry Lynch, who met Deaconess Hripsime Tayiriantse in 1893.^[22] Lynch described her as a “charming woman,” who gave him a photograph of herself in liturgical attire, likely taken in 1874 when she was ordained as a deaconess in Tbilisi.^[23]

Another significant testimony comes from Nicolas Zernov, who visited the St. Stepanos nunnery in Tbilisi in 1920. He praised the tradition of the ordination of deaconesses and reported that women were able to participate successfully in the liturgical service, carrying the Holy Chalice as deacons do.^[24] Zernov was also present at an Eucharistic service in the Armenian Church of Tbilisi, during which a deaconess in full vestments distributed the chalice for the communion of the people.^[25]

The St. Stepanos nunnery survived until the 1920s when it was destroyed due to Soviet repression. Some nuns found refuge in Armenian parish churches in Tbilisi, while others received a pension from the Mother See of Holy Etchmiadzin. The abbess Hripsime was transferred to Etchmiadzin, where she died in 1934 and was buried at the cemetery of the Congregation of the Holy See of Etchmiadzin, near the Gayane Monastery.^[26]

The deaconesses and subdeaconesses of the Galfayian Community of Orphan-Nurturers wearing festive robes and stoles. This photo was taken in front of the former St Stepanos Church of Khasgyugh. The church was a glorious temple, nationalised by the Turkish government during the construction of the second bridge of Voskejour. The four nuns, from left to right, are: Sister Zarmuhi Mehrapian, Mother Mariam Keoseian, Sister Nevrik Pasmanian and Mother Aghawni Keoseian

The “Galfayan National Orphanage of Presentation of the Holy Virgin at the Age of Three” was founded in Constantinople in 1866 by Srbuhi Nshan-Galfayian under the jurisdiction of the Armenian Patriarchate of Turkey.^[27] This congregation had a national ecclesiastical structure, allowing nuns to hold ecclesiastical offices up to the rank of Archdeaconess.

The primary mission of the orphanage and the congregation was to lead a monastic life and care for orphaned children. Some of the nuns in this institution were ordained as deaconesses or subdeaconesses, while others held lower ecclesiastical positions. The former group of nuns not only served at altars in various Armenian churches in Istanbul but also in other countries in the Armenian Diaspora, taking on all the duties of a deacon during the Divine Liturgy.^[28]

The last nun of this congregation, Sister Gayiane Dulkadiryan, was ordained as a subdeaconess on November 23, 2014, by the current Patriarch, Archbishop Sahak Mashalian, in Istanbul.^[29]

In 1990, Garegin Sargissian, the Armenian Catholicos of the Great House of Cilicia, founded a community of Gayianian Sisters next to the orphanage Trchnots Bouyn (“Bird’s Nest”) in the Lebanese city of Byblos.^[30] This community was intended to grant highly educated and worthy sisters the privilege of diaconal ordination, with the goal of fostering a steady influx of women interested in this vocation. However, due to national and ecclesiastical changes, as well as other adverse circumstances, this plan was ultimately unsuccessful.^[31] In the years following 1995, similar initiatives were attempted in Armenia, both at the Monastery of St. Hripsime and the Monastery of St. Gayiane, yet without significant results. On May 11, 2000, a new effort was undertaken in Ghazaravan to establish a female religious community, where six nuns now reside, though without ecclesiastical ordination.^[32]

In 2002, the Archbishop of the Armenian Dioceses of Argentina and Chile, Kissag Mouradian, ordained Maria del Carmen Ozkul as a deaconess. Further ordinations followed, including that of Maria Pedicino Keuroghlian. However, these ordinations met with resistance, as they were performed without the consent of Catholicos Garegin II in Etchmiadzin, leading to controversy.

The Reverend Deaconess Ani-Kristi Manvelian censing during the Divine Liturgy

The last deaconess of the Armenian Church was Hripsime Sasunian, who died in 2007. A decade after her death, in 2017, Ani-Kristi Manvelian was ordained as a deaconess in Tehran by Archbishop Sebouh Sarkissian. However, her ordination was not intended for monastic service, as Sasunian’s had been, but for pastoral duties within the diocese.

A final note on the ordination of deaconesses discussed here, is that it is explicitly described in the preserved writings of the Armenian Church as a sacramental act conferred through the laying on of hands by a bishop. It is not a mere blessing but a true ordination constituting a valid sacrament, in contrast to the lesser ecclesiastical appointments of lectors or acolytes. In ancient Armenian texts, the term dzernadrutyun is used to denote ordination by the laying on of hands, whereas Orhnutyun refers to a blessing.

Within the context of this rich history of deaconesses in the Armenian Church, a question arises: why is it currently not possible to maintain a continuous and sufficient number of deaconesses in the service of our church? Numerous reasons may be provided, but I will limit myself to only a few aspects of our church that need to be revised or considered more fully:

The power of the Church should not be centralised only in the hands of men, especially the celibate ones.
In certain circles in our society and of power-hungry clergy, outdated stereotypes exist of women being feeble and unclean due to menstruation. This mentality should change.
Treating women as if they exist solely to satisfy sexual needs or function merely as childbearing creatures must be stopped. It is fallacious to associate someone’s sexuality with the original or inherited sin. Sexuality is an integral part of someone’s life and identity, which God bestowed equally upon man and woman. Man and woman, not only with their intellectual and spiritual advantages but also in the flesh, are created with a mission to complete each other, make each other whole, and become one flesh in love – “and the two will become one flesh” (Gn 2:24; Mt 19:5; Mk 10:8; Eph 5:31). Before God, man and woman are of equal value. They were both created in the image of God, and on earth, they jointly represent the image of their creator, God. Both are endowed with the same intellectual, ethical, and spiritual abilities and have the same responsibilities and missions on earth.
The office of diaconate is not equally open to both men and women with a spiritual calling, but it should be. The condition for ordaining someone as a deacon should be based on the individual’s spiritual vocation and educational preparation rather than on sexual differences.
The service of deaconesses should not be limited exclusively to nunneries and female abbacies. The service mission of both deaconesses and their male counterparts should be treated as equal. They should enjoy the same rights, such as serving at the altar, offering spiritual education, teaching, taking care of orphans, and providing different services to the sick, the grieving, the needy, and older people. In other words, the presence of deaconesses in the church’s social structure should be substantial and even indispensable.
From the upper echelons of the church to dioceses and pastorates, everyone should encourage and promote women’s spiritual and ecclesiastical service, bestowing the four clerical ranks, the offices of subdiaconate and then diaconate on female candidates with a suitable training.
For this programme to succeed and bud in the fields of the church and then bear fruit, the diaconate should certainly reflect the spirit of the time. This means that celibacy should not be a mandatory requirement to ordain women as deaconesses. As is the case with male deacons, individuals should be free to make their decisions and, based on their preference and vocation, choose whether they want to be celibate or married when carrying out their pastoral service.
Discrimination based on sex is foreign to the spirit of the church and hinders its redemptive mission. It is reactionary in essence and prevents the church from developing according to the spirit of the time. The exceptionally male elite of our church should recognise the spirit of the time and positively approach the handling of all challenges. The church exists through a large multitude of its believers and their active engagement, not just through the orders of its male elite.

A faithful Armenian woman should not be limited only to the “women’s guild” of the diocese or parish; organising fairs, running stalls, cooking, preparing savoury dishes, and doing needlework to ensure the church’s income. They should also be included in the church’s ritualistic and missionary practices with the spiritual calling and superior rank bestowed on them, one of which at least could be that of a deaconess.

Both deacon and deaconess, having the same missionary and ritualistic rights, are called to serve the Church of Christ. It goes against Christian beliefs to turn this office, which is unequivocally all about service, into a position of authority, to attribute certain powers to it, and to exploit it for either appropriate or inappropriate reasons. This must not be legitimised in the church. As the Apostle says, faith is realised through works. Therefore, it is a great sin to deprive a woman of expressing her heart’s living faith through the preaching of the Word of life, worship, and testimony of faith solely based on differences in sex. On this topic, one of our eminent fathers, vardapet Barsegh Mashkewortsi, said in his commentary of the Gospel of Mark: “Because not only is it our duty to admonish and educate, but also you all, men and women accomplished in age, should teach the imperfect and the simple-minded with words and works. And if you fail to do so, both you and we are in the same sin. Therefore, admonish them with the virtuous works of illumination…”^[33]
Of course, it is evident to any reasonable person that the question of women being part of the church’s hierarchy starts with the diaconate but does not end there. Currently, the question pertains to the revival of the sacred tradition of deaconess, which is dying but has existed in the history of our Church for centuries.

But the demand for women to attain the title and authority of a priest and a bishop will logically follow the diaconate. However, throughout the entire tradition of the Armenian Church, there is not the slightest indication that women have ever served as priests.

The key question remains: Are the representatives of our ecclesiastical elite ready to share the church’s spiritual and administrative authority with women on equal terms? If this question is not necessarily answered today or tomorrow, it must be answered in the future. If it remains unanswered, it does not stop being a serious and contemporary issue.

In conclusion, we must not only echo, but also deeply contemplate the words bequeathed to us by our enlightened forebears. These are words that came from individuals of visionary prowess and remarkably open minds, who transcended the limitations imposed by societal and cultural norms:

“Do not regard this as something new and irregular, because we have learned it from the tradition of the holy apostle, since he says: “I entrust to you Phoebe our sister, who is a servant of the church (Romans 16:1)”^[34] (Mkhitar Gosh).

How can we, then, find a way forward? Firstly, it would be misleading to claim that there are no longer any Armenian women with a genuine calling and sincere interest in this sacred office. Based on personal experience in numerous dioceses and parishes, both in Armenia and throughout the Armenian diaspora, I can confidently attest that a remarkable number of young women, with profound faith and deep devotion, aspire to serve Christ and their Mother Church in this capacity. Tragically, however, they often lack the trust and support that should be extended to them by the clergy.

As many women with a vocation within the Armenian Church find no opportunity to serve Christ, they seek other paths outside the Church to bear witness to their faith and preach the Gospel. Often, this leads them to the numerous and diverse sects that are widespread both in Armenia and the diaspora. Why should our Mother Church not grant her own daughters the opportunity that is rightfully theirs according to the sacred tradition of the early Church and its own sacred heritage?

The main door of the Mother Cathedral of St Etchmiadzin. Gift from Archdeaconess Hripsime Tayireants; Inscription: “Memory: Archdeaconess Hripsime Aghek Tayireants; 1338 (= 1889).” Below: “Ingenieur Nicolas Grigorian.” It is highly symbolic and touching that whenever we enter the Mother Cathedral of Holy Etchmiadzin to kneel, worship, and renew our covenant at the altar of the Holy Descent, we realise that we enter the temple through doors which were gifted by a luminous soul, Archdeaconess Hripsime Tayireants, the abbess of St Stepanos’s Convent of Tbilisi

It is of fundamental importance to first establish a foundation of mutual trust so that women feel encouraged and welcomed to pursue this spiritual path. I call upon Bishops and priests to actively promote and support this ministry within their dioceses and parishes and, where possible, to establish training programs. Through such programs, faithful women could receive a solid foundation in religious instruction, the Liturgy of the Hours, the Sacraments, hymns, and the religious customs of our Church, thereby equipping them to embrace their spiritual vocation in the best possible way.

For years, both at the Holy See of St. Etchmiadzin and at the Catholicosate of the Great House of Cilicia, two-year theological training programs have been in place to prepare dedicated men for their future role as married parish priests with spiritual devotion and theological depth. Why should comparable institutions not also be established for women who feel called to the ministry of the female diaconate?

Undoubtedly, the dioceses possess the necessary resources and capacity to create such structures, both in Armenia and in the diaspora. The introduction of the female diaconate would not only enrich the Church’s mission but also provide invaluable pastoral and social services. Deaconesses could play a pivotal role in the religious education of girls and mothers, engage in charitable work, and offer pastoral and practical assistance to the needy, the elderly, and the sick—especially in hospitals. Such an initiative would profoundly strengthen both the spiritual and social mission of the Church and further expand its service to the faithful.